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Class 12 Biology Chapter 11 – Biotechnology: Principles and Processes

 ✍️ Chapter 11: Biotechnology: Principles and Processes --- πŸ”Ά Introduction to Biotechnology Biotechnology is the branch of biology that deals with the use of living organisms and biological systems to develop products and technologies for human use. Modern biotechnology involves genetic engineering and bioprocess engineering. --- πŸ”· Principles of Biotechnology There are two core techniques that enabled the growth of modern biotechnology: 1. Genetic Engineering – Altering the chemistry of genetic material (DNA/RNA) to introduce desirable traits. 2. Bioprocess Engineering – Maintenance of sterile conditions to allow growth of only the desired microbe. --- 🧬 Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology 1. Restriction Enzymes (Molecular Scissors) Cut DNA at specific sites called recognition sequences. Example: EcoRI – Cuts between G and A in GAATTC. Types: Exonucleases – Remove nucleotides from ends. Endonucleases – Cut within the DNA. πŸ“Œ Diagram: Action of Restriction Endonuclease on DNA ---...
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Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 9 – Coordination Compounds Notes (With Important Diagrams)

πŸ§ͺ Chapter 9: Coordination Compounds – Class 12 Chemistry Notes --- πŸ” Introduction Coordination compounds are chemical compounds composed of a central metal atom/ion bonded to surrounding ligands through coordinate bonds. These compounds play a crucial role in biological systems, industrial catalysis, and analytical chemistry. --- πŸ“Œ Important Terms and Definitions Coordination Entity: Central metal atom/ion bonded to a fixed number of ligands. Ligands: Ions or molecules that donate a pair of electrons to the metal. Monodentate: Donates one pair (e.g., Cl⁻, NH₃). Bidentate: Donates two pairs (e.g., ethylenediamine). Polydentate: Donates more than two pairs (e.g., EDTA⁴⁻). Coordination Number: Number of ligand donor atoms attached to central metal. Chelate Complex: Complex formed by polydentate ligands. Coordination Sphere: Part of complex enclosed in square brackets. --- 🧲 Types of Ligands Type Examples Monodentate Cl⁻, CN⁻, NH₃ Bidentate C₂O₄²⁻ (oxalate), en Polydentate EDTA⁴⁻ --- ...
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Microbes in Human Welfare – Class 12 Biology Notes | Full NCERT Chapter Summary

 πŸ¦  Chapter 10: Microbes in Human Welfare --- πŸ”Ή Introduction Microbes = Bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae, viruses. Helpful in: Food industry Medicine Agriculture Sewage treatment Biogas production --- πŸ”Ή Microbes in Household Products Lactobacillus – used to curdle milk Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) – used in bread and alcoholic beverages Fermented foods – dosa, idli, toddy πŸ“Œ Diagram: Fermentation process in food preparation --- πŸ”Ή Microbes in Industrial Products Product Microbe Ethanol Saccharomyces cerevisiae Citric acid Aspergillus niger Acetic acid Acetobacter aceti Antibiotic (Penicillin) Penicillium notatum πŸ“Œ Diagram: Fermenter setup in industry --- πŸ”Ή Microbes in Antibiotics Antibiotic = Substance produced by microbe that kills other microbes First antibiotic: Penicillin, discovered by Alexander Fleming (1928) --- πŸ”Ή Microbes in Chemicals, Enzymes and Bioactive Molecules Streptokinase (clot buster) – Streptococcus Cyclosporin A (immunosuppressant) – Trichoderma polyspo...
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The d- and f-Block Elements – Class 12 Chemistry Notes | Transition & Inner Transition Elements

 πŸ§ͺ Chapter 8: The d- and f-Block Elements --- πŸ”Ή Introduction d-block → Groups 3–12 f-block → Lanthanides and actinides Known as transition and inner transition elements --- πŸ”Ή Electronic Configuration General: d-block: (n-1)d¹–¹⁰ ns¹–² f-block: (n-2)f¹–¹⁴ (n-1)d⁰–¹ ns² --- πŸ”Ή Properties of d-block Elements Variable oxidation states Formation of colored compounds Catalytic properties Paramagnetic behavior Complex formation πŸ“Œ Diagram: Table of transition elements and their oxidation states --- πŸ”Ή Important Series First transition series: Sc to Zn Second series: Y to Cd Third series: La to Hg (excluding lanthanides) --- πŸ”Ή Lanthanides (4f series) Elements: Ce (58) to Lu (71) Properties: +3 oxidation state common Lanthanide contraction Poor shielding by 4f electrons πŸ“Œ Diagram: Lanthanide contraction chart --- πŸ”Ή Actinides (5f series) Elements: Th (90) to Lr (103) Properties: Radioactive +3 to +6 oxidation states Poor shielding, large atomic size πŸ“Œ Diagram: f-block placement in per...
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The p-Block Elements – Class 12 Chemistry Notes | Group 15, 16, 17, 18 Full Summary

 πŸŒˆ Chapter 7: The p-Block Elements --- πŸ”Ή Introduction p-block elements = Elements of group 13 to 18 Class 12 me: Group 15, 16, 17, 18 Their outermost electron enters the p-orbital --- πŸ§ͺ Group 15 Elements – Nitrogen Family Element Symbol Atomic No. Nitrogen N 7 Phosphorus P 15 Arsenic As 33 Antimony Sb 51 Bismuth Bi 83 Important Compounds: Ammonia (NH₃) Nitric acid (HNO₃) Phosphine (PH₃) Oxides of nitrogen πŸ“Œ Diagram: Structure of nitric acid, hybridisation in NH₃ --- πŸ”Ή Group 16 Elements – Oxygen Family (Chalcogens) Element Symbol Atomic No. Oxygen O 8 Sulfur S 16 Selenium Se 34 Tellurium Te 52 Polonium Po 84 Important Compounds: O₃ (Ozone) SO₂, SO₃ H₂SO₄ – industrially important πŸ“Œ Diagram: Contact process (H₂SO₄ manufacturing), ozone structure --- πŸ”Ή Group 17 Elements – Halogens Element Symbol Fluorine F Chlorine Cl Bromine Br Iodine I Astatine At Important Compounds: Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Interhalogen compounds Chlorine water reactions πŸ“Œ Diagram: Structures of ClF₃, IF₇ --...
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Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production – Class 12 Biology Notes | Full Chapter Summary

  Chapter 9: Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production --- πŸ”Ή Introduction This chapter focuses on improving quantity and quality of food through biological and technological methods. Major strategies: Plant breeding, Animal husbandry, Tissue culture, Genetic engineering --- πŸ”Ή Animal Husbandry Management of farm animals for milk, meat, eggs. Includes: Dairy farming (milk production) Poultry farming (egg & meat) Fishery (aquaculture + pisiculture) Bee keeping (Apiculture) πŸ“Œ Diagram: Dairy farm setup / Poultry structure --- πŸ”Ή Plant Breeding Purpose: Develop better quality, disease-resistant and high-yielding crops. Steps: 1. Collection of Variability 2. Evaluation and Selection 3. Hybridisation 4. Selection and Testing 5. Release of New Varieties --- πŸ“Œ Plant Breeding for Disease Resistance Conventional and molecular breeding. Resistant varieties: Wheat: HUW 206 Rice: Ratna, Laxmi --- πŸ“Œ Plant Breeding for Improved Nutrition Biofortification: Improving nutritional quality ...
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General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements – Class 12 Chemistry Notes | Complete NCERT Summary

 πŸ§ͺ Chapter 6: General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements --- πŸ”Ή Introduction This chapter deals with metallurgy – the process of extracting pure metal from its ores. Metallurgy steps: Concentration → Extraction → Refining --- πŸ”Ή Occurrence of Metals Native State: e.g., gold, platinum Combined State: Most metals found as oxides, sulphides, carbonates, halides etc. --- πŸ”Ή Steps in Metallurgy 1️⃣ Concentration of Ore Removes impurities (gangue). Methods: Gravity separation (hydraulic washing) Magnetic separation Froth flotation (for sulphide ores) Leaching (for Al, Ag) πŸ“Œ Diagram: Froth flotation process setup --- 2️⃣ Extraction of Crude Metal By reduction of oxides: Using carbon (smelting) Using more reactive metals (Al in thermite process) By electrolytic reduction πŸ“Œ Diagram: Blast furnace for iron extraction --- 3️⃣ Refining of Metal Distillation Liquation Electrolytic refining Zone refining (for semiconductors like Si, Ge) πŸ“Œ Diagram: Electrolytic refining of copp...
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Electromagnetic Waves – Class 12 Physics Notes | Full NCERT Chapter Summary

 πŸŒˆ Chapter 8: Electromagnetic Waves – Class 12 Physics --- πŸ”Ή Introduction Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves consisting of electric field (E) and magnetic field (B) oscillating perpendicular to each other and the direction of wave propagation. Proposed by James Clerk Maxwell. --- πŸ”Ή Displacement Current Maxwell added the concept of displacement current to Ampere’s law. I_d = \varepsilon_0 \frac{d\Phi_E}{dt} Where:  = Displacement current  = Permittivity of free space  = Rate of change of electric flux πŸ“Œ Diagram: Parallel plate capacitor showing conduction and displacement current --- πŸ”Ή Maxwell’s Equations (Conceptually) 1. Gauss’s law for electricity 2. Gauss’s law for magnetism 3. Faraday’s law of induction 4. Ampere-Maxwell law --- πŸ”Ή Nature of Electromagnetic Waves Electric and Magnetic fields oscillate perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. They do not require any medium to travel. Speed of EM Waves (in vacuum): c = \frac{1}{...
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Human Health and Disease – Class 12 Biology Notes | Complete NCERT Summary

 πŸ§¬ Chapter 8: Human Health and Disease – Class 12 Biology --- πŸ”Ή What is Health? A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. WHO defines health as not just absence of disease. Factors affecting health: Nutrition, environment, lifestyle, social conditions. --- πŸ”Ή Common Diseases: A. Infectious Diseases: Caused by pathogens (bacteria, virus, fungi, protozoa, helminths). Examples: Disease Causative Organism Transmission Typhoid Salmonella typhi Contaminated food/water Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae Air (droplets) Common Cold Rhinovirus Direct contact Malaria Plasmodium (protozoa) Female Anopheles mosquito Ascariasis Ascaris (worm) Contaminated food/water Filariasis Wuchereria bancrofti Mosquito bite πŸ“Œ Important Diagram: Plasmodium life cycle in humans and mosquito --- B. Non-Infectious Diseases: Caused by genetic, lifestyle or environmental factors. Examples: Cancer, Diabetes, Hypertension πŸ“Œ Diagram: Difference between benign and malignant tumor cells --- πŸ”Ή Imm...
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Surface Chemistry – Class 12 Chemistry Notes | Full NCERT Summary

 πŸ”¬ Chapter 5: Surface Chemistry – Class 12 Chemistry --- πŸ”Ή What is Surface Chemistry? Deals with phenomena occurring at the interface between two phases: solid-liquid, solid-gas, or liquid-gas. Important in adsorption, catalysis, and colloidal systems. --- πŸ”Ή Adsorption Definition: Accumulation of molecules on the surface of a solid or liquid. Types: 1. Physisorption – Weak Van der Waals forces, reversible. 2. Chemisorption – Strong chemical bonds, irreversible. πŸ“Œ Important Diagram: Graph between temperature and extent of adsorption --- πŸ”Ή Adsorption Isotherms Freundlich Adsorption Isotherm: x/m = kP^{1/n}  = mass of adsorbate  = mass of adsorbent  = pressure πŸ“Œ Diagram: Freundlich isotherm plot --- πŸ”Ή Catalysis Catalyst: A substance that alters the rate of a reaction without being consumed. Types of Catalysis: 1. Homogeneous Catalysis – Reactants and catalyst in the same phase. 2. Heterogeneous Catalysis – Catalyst in a different phase. πŸ“Œ Diagram: Energy profile...
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Alternating Current – Class 12 Physics Notes | Full NCERT Summary with Important Diagrams

 ⚡️ Chapter 7 – Alternating Current (AC) – Class 12 Physics --- πŸ”Ή What is Alternating Current? Alternating Current (AC): An electric current that changes its magnitude and direction with time. Represented as: I(t) = I_0 \sin(\omega t)  = Peak current  = Angular frequency  --- πŸ”Ή AC vs DC Property Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC) Direction Changes with time Constant Source Generator Battery Transmission Less loss More loss --- πŸ”Ή Peak, RMS, and Average Value 1. Peak Value (I₀, V₀): Maximum value of current or voltage. 2. Root Mean Square (RMS) Value: I_{\text{rms}} = \frac{I_0}{\sqrt{2}}, \quad V_{\text{rms}} = \frac{V_0}{\sqrt{2}} πŸ“Œ Important Diagram: Graph of AC waveform showing I vs t --- πŸ”Ή AC through Resistor (R) Voltage and current are in the same phase. πŸ“Œ Diagram: Phasor diagram for AC through R --- πŸ”Ή AC through Inductor (L) Current lags voltage by . Inductive reactance: X_L = \omega L πŸ“Œ Diagram: Phasor diagram for AC through L --- πŸ”Ή AC throug...
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Evolution – Class 12 Biology Notes | CBSE NCERT Based

 πŸ§¬ Chapter 7: Evolution – Class 12 Biology Notes πŸ”Ή Introduction Evolution refers to the gradual changes occurring in living organisms over millions of years. It explains the origin of new species from pre-existing ones through various mechanisms like mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, etc. --- πŸ”Ή Origin of Life Big Bang Theory: Universe originated about 20 billion years ago. Early Earth: Formed around 4.5 billion years ago; no oxygen, only methane, ammonia, hydrogen, water vapor. Chemical Evolution: Life began from non-living molecules (Oparin-Haldane theory). Miller-Urey Experiment: Simulated early Earth conditions and created organic molecules (amino acids). πŸ“Œ Important Diagram: Miller and Urey's Experiment Setup --- πŸ”Ή Theories of Evolution 1. Lamarckism: Proposed by Jean Baptiste Lamarck. Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters. Example: Giraffe's long neck. 2. Darwinism (Natural Selection): Proposed by Charles Darwin. Survival of the fittest. Based on: Var...
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Electromagnetic Induction – Class 12 Physics Notes | CBSE NCERT Based

  πŸ“š Chapter: Electromagnetic Induction – Full Detailed Notes --- πŸ”Έ 1. Introduction Electromagnetic Induction is the phenomenon of inducing current or EMF in a conductor when the magnetic flux linked with it changes. Discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831. --- πŸ”Ή 2. Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction ✅ First Law Whenever magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, an EMF is induced. ✅ Second Law The magnitude of induced EMF is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux: \text{EMF} = -\frac{d\Phi}{dt} Negative sign from Lenz’s Law --- πŸ”Ή 3. Lenz’s Law The direction of induced EMF is such that it opposes the cause that produced it. It ensures conservation of energy. --- πŸ”Ή 4. Magnetic Flux (Ξ¦) \Phi = B \cdot A \cdot \cos\theta  = Magnetic field  = Area  = Angle between B and normal to area --- πŸ”Ή 5. Induced EMF Types Static (by changing area/orientation) Dynamic (by relative motion of coil and magnet) --- πŸ”Ή 6. Motional EMF When a conductor of ...
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Molecular Basis of Inheritance – Class 12 Biology Notes | CBSE NCERT Based

  πŸ“š Chapter: Molecular Basis of Inheritance – Detailed Notes --- πŸ”Έ 1. Introduction This chapter explains how genetic information is stored, replicated, and expressed in living organisms through DNA and RNA. --- πŸ”Ή 2. DNA – The Genetic Material Full form: Deoxyribonucleic Acid Found in nucleus (eukaryotes), cytoplasm (prokaryotes) Proved by: ✅ Griffith's Transformation Experiment ✅ Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment ✅ Hershey-Chase experiment (Bacteriophage with radioactive sulfur and phosphorus) --- πŸ”Ή 3. Structure of DNA Double helix model by Watson and Crick Each nucleotide = phosphate + deoxyribose sugar + nitrogenous base Nitrogenous bases: Purines: Adenine (A), Guanine (G) Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) Base pairing: A = T (2 H-bonds), G ≡ C (3 H-bonds) Antiparallel strands (5′ → 3′ and 3′ → 5′) --- πŸ”Ή 4. Packaging of DNA In prokaryotes: Looped and held by non-histone proteins In eukaryotes: Histone proteins form nucleosomes – "Beads on string" structure --- ...
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Magnetism and Matter – Class 12 Physics Notes | CBSE NCERT Based

 πŸ“š Chapter: Magnetism and Matter – Class 12 Physics Notes --- πŸ”Έ 1. Introduction This chapter deals with the magnetic properties of materials, Earth's magnetism, and how magnetism and matter are related. --- πŸ”Ή 2. Bar Magnet Magnetic dipole has two poles: North and South Like poles repel, unlike poles attract Magnetic field lines emerge from North and enter South Magnetic dipole moment (M): M = m × 2l where, m = pole strength, 2l = length of magnet --- πŸ”Ή 3. Magnetic Field Due to a Bar Magnet At a point on the axial line: B_{\text{axial}} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \cdot \frac{2M}{r^3} At a point on the equatorial line: B_{\text{equatorial}} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \cdot \frac{M}{r^3} --- πŸ”Ή 4. Torque on a Magnetic Dipole in Uniform Magnetic Field \vec{\tau} = \vec{M} \times \vec{B} Where: M = Magnetic dipole moment B = External magnetic field Direction by right-hand rule --- πŸ”Ή 5. Magnetic Properties of Materials Type Magnetic Susceptibility (Ο‡) Relative Permeability (ΞΌr) Example Diamagne...
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Principles of Inheritance and Variation – Class 12 Biology Notes | CBSE NCERT Based

 πŸ“š Chapter: Principles of Inheritance and Variation – Class 12 Biology Notes --- πŸ”Έ 1. Introduction Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with heredity and variation. Heredity: Transmission of characters from parents to offspring Variation: Differences among individuals --- πŸ”Ή 2. Mendel and His Experiments Gregor Mendel is known as Father of Genetics He worked on garden pea (Pisum sativum) He selected 7 contrasting traits like tall/dwarf, round/wrinkled etc. --- πŸ”Ή 3. Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance a) Law of Dominance Dominant allele expresses itself in F₁ generation b) Law of Segregation Alleles separate during gamete formation c) Law of Independent Assortment Genes for different traits assort independently --- πŸ”Ή 4. Monohybrid Cross One trait considered Genotypic ratio: 1:2:1 Phenotypic ratio: 3:1 --- πŸ”Ή 5. Dihybrid Cross Two traits considered Phenotypic ratio: 9:3:3:1 --- πŸ”Ή 6. Incomplete Dominance F₁ is intermediate Example: Red × White flower = Pink (in Snapdragon) --- ?...
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Chemical Kinetics – Class 12 Chemistry Notes | CBSE NCERT Based

 πŸ“š Chapter: Chemical Kinetics – Class 12 Chemistry Notes --- πŸ”Έ 1. Introduction to Chemical Kinetics Deals with the rate of chemical reactions and factors affecting them. Tells us how fast a reaction occurs, and what mechanism it follows. --- πŸ”Ή 2. Rate of Reaction Average Rate = Ξ”Concentration / Ξ”Time Instantaneous Rate = Rate at a particular moment Units: mol L⁻¹ s⁻¹ For a reaction: A → B Rate = –d[A]/dt = +d[B]/dt --- πŸ”Ή 3. Factors Affecting Rate Concentration – ↑ Conc = ↑ Rate Temperature – ↑ Temp = ↑ Rate (Arrhenius Eq.) Catalyst – Alters rate without being consumed Surface Area – ↑ Area = ↑ Rate Nature of Reactants --- πŸ”Ή 4. Rate Law and Order of Reaction For reaction: aA + bB → Products Rate law: Rate = k[A]^x[B]^y x, y = Order w.r.t A, B Overall order = x + y --- πŸ”Ή 5. Molecularity vs Order Molecularity Order Theoretical concept Experimental Can’t be zero Can be zero Only whole numbers Can be fractional --- πŸ”Ή 6. Integrated Rate Laws Zero Order: Rate = k [A] = [A]₀ – kt Un...
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