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🧪 Chapter 9: Coordination Compounds – Class 12 Chemistry Notes --- 🔍 Introduction Coordination compounds are chemical compounds composed of a central metal atom/ion bonded to surrounding ligands through coordinate bonds. These compounds play a crucial role in biological systems, industrial catalysis, and analytical chemistry. --- 📌 Important Terms and Definitions Coordination Entity: Central metal atom/ion bonded to a fixed number of ligands. Ligands: Ions or molecules that donate a pair of electrons to the metal. Monodentate: Donates one pair (e.g., Cl⁻, NH₃). Bidentate: Donates two pairs (e.g., ethylenediamine). Polydentate: Donates more than two pairs (e.g., EDTA⁴⁻). Coordination Number: Number of ligand donor atoms attached to central metal. Chelate Complex: Complex formed by polydentate ligands. Coordination Sphere: Part of complex enclosed in square brackets. --- 🧲 Types of Ligands Type Examples Monodentate Cl⁻, CN⁻, NH₃ Bidentate C₂O₄²⁻ (oxalate), en Polydentate EDTA⁴⁻ --- ...

 🦠 Chapter 10: Microbes in Human Welfare --- 🔹 Introduction Microbes = Bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae, viruses. Helpful in: Food industry Medicine Agriculture Sewage treatment Biogas production --- 🔹 Microbes in Household Products Lactobacillus – used to curdle milk Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) – used in bread and alcoholic beverages Fermented foods – dosa, idli, toddy 📌 Diagram: Fermentation process in food preparation --- 🔹 Microbes in Industrial Products Product Microbe Ethanol Saccharomyces cerevisiae Citric acid Aspergillus niger Acetic acid Acetobacter aceti Antibiotic (Penicillin) Penicillium notatum 📌 Diagram: Fermenter setup in industry --- 🔹 Microbes in Antibiotics Antibiotic = Substance produced by microbe that kills other microbes First antibiotic: Penicillin, discovered by Alexander Fleming (1928) --- 🔹 Microbes in Chemicals, Enzymes and Bioactive Molecules Streptokinase (clot buster) – Streptococcus Cyclosporin A (immunosuppressant) – Trichoderma polyspo...

 🧪 Chapter 8: The d- and f-Block Elements --- 🔹 Introduction d-block → Groups 3–12 f-block → Lanthanides and actinides Known as transition and inner transition elements --- 🔹 Electronic Configuration General: d-block: (n-1)d¹–¹⁰ ns¹–² f-block: (n-2)f¹–¹⁴ (n-1)d⁰–¹ ns² --- 🔹 Properties of d-block Elements Variable oxidation states Formation of colored compounds Catalytic properties Paramagnetic behavior Complex formation 📌 Diagram: Table of transition elements and their oxidation states --- 🔹 Important Series First transition series: Sc to Zn Second series: Y to Cd Third series: La to Hg (excluding lanthanides) --- 🔹 Lanthanides (4f series) Elements: Ce (58) to Lu (71) Properties: +3 oxidation state common Lanthanide contraction Poor shielding by 4f electrons 📌 Diagram: Lanthanide contraction chart --- 🔹 Actinides (5f series) Elements: Th (90) to Lr (103) Properties: Radioactive +3 to +6 oxidation states Poor shielding, large atomic size 📌 Diagram: f-block placement in per...

 🌈 Chapter 7: The p-Block Elements --- 🔹 Introduction p-block elements = Elements of group 13 to 18 Class 12 me: Group 15, 16, 17, 18 Their outermost electron enters the p-orbital --- 🧪 Group 15 Elements – Nitrogen Family Element Symbol Atomic No. Nitrogen N 7 Phosphorus P 15 Arsenic As 33 Antimony Sb 51 Bismuth Bi 83 Important Compounds: Ammonia (NH₃) Nitric acid (HNO₃) Phosphine (PH₃) Oxides of nitrogen 📌 Diagram: Structure of nitric acid, hybridisation in NH₃ --- 🔹 Group 16 Elements – Oxygen Family (Chalcogens) Element Symbol Atomic No. Oxygen O 8 Sulfur S 16 Selenium Se 34 Tellurium Te 52 Polonium Po 84 Important Compounds: O₃ (Ozone) SO₂, SO₃ H₂SO₄ – industrially important 📌 Diagram: Contact process (H₂SO₄ manufacturing), ozone structure --- 🔹 Group 17 Elements – Halogens Element Symbol Fluorine F Chlorine Cl Bromine Br Iodine I Astatine At Important Compounds: Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Interhalogen compounds Chlorine water reactions 📌 Diagram: Structures of ClF₃, IF₇ --...

  Chapter 9: Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production --- 🔹 Introduction This chapter focuses on improving quantity and quality of food through biological and technological methods. Major strategies: Plant breeding, Animal husbandry, Tissue culture, Genetic engineering --- 🔹 Animal Husbandry Management of farm animals for milk, meat, eggs. Includes: Dairy farming (milk production) Poultry farming (egg & meat) Fishery (aquaculture + pisiculture) Bee keeping (Apiculture) 📌 Diagram: Dairy farm setup / Poultry structure --- 🔹 Plant Breeding Purpose: Develop better quality, disease-resistant and high-yielding crops. Steps: 1. Collection of Variability 2. Evaluation and Selection 3. Hybridisation 4. Selection and Testing 5. Release of New Varieties --- 📌 Plant Breeding for Disease Resistance Conventional and molecular breeding. Resistant varieties: Wheat: HUW 206 Rice: Ratna, Laxmi --- 📌 Plant Breeding for Improved Nutrition Biofortification: Improving nutritional quality ...

 🧪 Chapter 6: General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements --- 🔹 Introduction This chapter deals with metallurgy – the process of extracting pure metal from its ores. Metallurgy steps: Concentration → Extraction → Refining --- 🔹 Occurrence of Metals Native State: e.g., gold, platinum Combined State: Most metals found as oxides, sulphides, carbonates, halides etc. --- 🔹 Steps in Metallurgy 1️⃣ Concentration of Ore Removes impurities (gangue). Methods: Gravity separation (hydraulic washing) Magnetic separation Froth flotation (for sulphide ores) Leaching (for Al, Ag) 📌 Diagram: Froth flotation process setup --- 2️⃣ Extraction of Crude Metal By reduction of oxides: Using carbon (smelting) Using more reactive metals (Al in thermite process) By electrolytic reduction 📌 Diagram: Blast furnace for iron extraction --- 3️⃣ Refining of Metal Distillation Liquation Electrolytic refining Zone refining (for semiconductors like Si, Ge) 📌 Diagram: Electrolytic refining of copp...